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| Jehovah\'s Witnesses | |
Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York | |
| Classification | Restorationist |
|---|---|
| Polity | Hierarchical |
| Founder | Charles Taze Russell (founded Bible Student movement) |
| Origin | 1876 - Bible Students founded 1931 - Adopted name
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| Branched from | Millerite and Adventist movements |
| Separations | See Jehovah\'s Witnesses splinter groups |
| Geographical Area | Worldwide |
| Statistics | |
| Congregations | 101,376 |
| Members | 7 million |
| Statistics from 2008 Yearbook of Jehovah\'s Witnesses | |
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Jehovah\'s Witnesses are members of an international restorationistStark et al, Why Jehovah’s Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application, Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol. 12, Num. 2, 1997: 133–157The Watchtower, October 1, 1977 p. 598: “Jehovah’s Witnesses today have made efforts to learn the mode of operation of the early Christian congregation and to follow that Scriptural pattern.”; Cote, P., Richardson, J.T., Disciplined Litigation, Vigilant Litigation, and Deformation: Dramatic Organisation Change in Jehovah’s Witnesses: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, March 2001 Vol. 40 No 1 p 23, “Not taking part in political activities, the ‘neutrality principle’ as it is known, is for the Witnesses, along with the blood taboo, the surest sign that theirs is the original community of true Christians.” religious denomination of the same name. The religion grew out of the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell, an American Protestant evangelist. The name "Jehovah\'s Witnesses", based on Isaiah 43:10, was adopted at a 1931 convention of Bible Students while under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Identification of the religion as Christian, among other controversies, is debated largely due to their disputing the Trinity, which most Christian religions regard as a fundamental doctrine.
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Jehovah\'s Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls, like this one in Germany.
Jehovah\'s Witnesses believe that God\'s name, in English,The rendering of the Tetragrammaton is different for different languages: "Geova" in Italian, for example. is Jehovah, a form of the Hebrew יהוה(Tetragrammaton) incorporating the vowel points of the term Adonai ("Lord"), and that use of the name is a requirement for true worship. Jehovah\'s Witnesses view Jehovah as the supreme being and creator of everything, the sovereign of the universe.
Jehovah\'s Witnesses believe that Jesus is the only-begotten Son of God, and is thus considered to be an independent entity from Jehovah who used him to create everything else. (January 15 1992) "What Do the Scriptures Say About "the Divinity of Christ"?": 20–23. Watchtower. He is the only means by which to approach God in prayer, and is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind. ""His Vital Place in God\'s Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"", Insight on the Scriptures Vol. e2. Watchtower, 60–61. They believe that Jesus Christ is head of the Christian Congregation, and all must obey him. His role as mediator of the "new covenant" is limited to those going to heaven to rule along with Christ,"Consequently, 1 Timothy 2:5, 6 is not using \'mediator\' in the broad sense common in many languages. It is not saying that Jesus is a mediator between God and all mankind. Rather, it refers to Christ as legal Mediator (or, "attorney") of the new covenant, this being the restricted way in which the Bible uses the term." (August 15 1989) "Watchtower": 30. whose number totals 144,000. They believe that Jesus was executed by being nailed to a \'torture stake,\' as opposed to a cross. Jehovah\'s Witnesses believe that Jesus is also known in the Bible as the archangel Michael, and Abaddon (Appolyon).
Jehovah\'s Witnesses believe that Jesus\' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind, and that 144,000 people will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during the Millennial Reign. Witnesses believe that during the imminent war of Armageddon, the wicked will be destroyed, and survivors, along with millions of others who will be resurrected, will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise. The vast majority of Jehovah\'s Witnesses expect to live on a renewed paradise on Earth. (2005) What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watchtower, 33–36. . The holy spirit is not a person but is God\'s active force. (1988) Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2, 1019. The soul is the person itself, not an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body."The...Scriptures show \'soul\' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys." (1988) Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2, 1004. Thus, souls of deceased persons are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. (July 15 2001) "Is There LIFE After Death?". Watchtower. Retrieved on January 26, 2006. Hades or Sheol is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment. (April 15 1993) "Hell—Eternal Torture or Common Grave?". The Watchtower: 6. (1988) Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2, 189. The year 1914 marks the return of Christ, which is understood to have occurred invisibly in heaven. At that time Christ became king in Heaven and the "last days" began. In 1918, those of the 144,000 who had died were resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life. Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are instantaneously resurrected to heavenly life. Armageddon is considered to be imminent. (October 1 1980) ""In the Last Days" Since When?". Watchtower: 19. After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction. (June 1 1996) "Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation"". Watchtower: 14–19. Only Jehovah\'s Witnesses will be saved. All others will be destroyed with no hope of resurrection. (September 1 1989) "Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium". Watchtower: 19. “Only Jehovah\'s Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the "great crowd," as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have any Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system dominated by Satan the Devil.” Regarding the fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, the Witnesses say "we may not know how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way." (8/15/98) "??". Watchtower: p. 20 par. 18. “18 ... ‘How will babies and small children be judged? Might it be that a large number of people will not yet have been reached with the good news when Armageddon arrives? What about the mentally ill? ... at present we may not know how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way.” (August 15 1998) "Strengthening Our Confidence in God\'s Righteousness". Watchtower: 20. After Armageddon, an unknown number of people, both righteous and unrighteous, who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise. (July 1 1998) ""Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"". Watchtower: 19–24.
Jehovah\'s Witnesses consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, to be the inspired word of God. They utilize their own translation of the Bible, theNew World translation, first published in 1950 by Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.An official listing of what Jehovah\'s Witnesses believe can be read at: [1] They interpret most scriptures literally,“Awake!” - March 8, 1982, p. 10. | “How Protestantism Undermines Respect for the Bible” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania but they believe that biblical writers and characters often employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism. (2005) A Book for All People. Watchtower. Thus, they insist that they are not \'fundamentalists\' who they feel are in error in taking a strictly literal view of the Bible.Watchtower 10/151974 p. 629 “How Are Jehovah’s Witnesses Different?” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of PennsylvaniaWatchtower 10/15 1977 . 618 par. 8 | “Obedience to the Good News a Way of Life” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of PennsylvaniaWatchtower 9/1 1994 . 6 | “Science, Religion, and the Search for Truth” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania They hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah\'s Witnesses. (March 15 2002) "Christ Leads His Congregation". Watchtower: 13–16.
The name "Jehovah" is one English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton.
Their view of morality reflects the usual conservative Christian views, with some differences. Homosexuality and premarital sex are considered sins. (July 22 2004) "Young People Ask... What\'s Wrong With Premarital Sex?". Awake!: 12. Abortion is considered murder. (1995) "Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness", Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower, 118. Modesty is strongly encouraged in dress and grooming. Gambling is strictly forbidden. (1995) Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower, 120. The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife\'s thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous. (July 8 2004) "The Bible\'s Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?". Awake!: 26. Blood is not to be eaten, sucked, stored or transfused. Medical procedures involving certain blood fractions are left to conscience.
Practices associated with nationalism or other religionsAwake! 11/22/89 p. 22 Part 22—1900 onward—False Religion—Overtaken by Its Past! | “Since the mid-1930’s, this willingness to compromise has become more pronounced because of a growing acceptance of the idea that all “Christian” religions have an inherent God-given unity. As “proof” of inherent unity, the World Council of Churches emphasizes that all its members accept the Trinity doctrine, viewing “Jesus Christ as God and Savior.” ... Christendom has also pursued dialogue with non-Christian religions.” are avoided. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe only their religion represents true Christianity. They believe that no other religion meets all the requirements set by God. They believe that all other religions and their practicies will eventually be done away with.What Does The Bible Really Teach? chap. 15 p. 145 par. 3 Worship That God Approves | “3 ... Many people believe that all religions are pleasing to God, but the Bible does not teach that. It is not even enough just to claim to be a Christian. Jesus said: “Not everyone saying to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter into the kingdom of the heavens, but the one doing the will of my Father who is in the heavens will.” “ Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are regarded as pagan holidays and are not celebrated. (October 15 1998) "Questions From Readers". Watchtower: 30.
Jehovah\'s Witnesses are politically neutral. (October 15 2001) "Can You Make the World a Better Place?". Watchtower. Retrieved on January 26, 2006. They believe that their allegiance belongs to God\'s Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs. (September 15 2002) ""Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"". Watchtower: 21. They believe that such an act would be tantamount to worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate what they view as God\'s law. (May 1 1996) "God and Caesar". Watchtower: 9. The political neutrality of Jehovah\'s Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service - even when it is compulsory - and by their detachment from secular politics. While not prohibited from voting, in 1999 the Watchtower enumerated five principles showing why many Witnesses make a personal decision not to vote in political elections. (November 1 1999) ""Questions From Readers"". Watchtower: 29. "In view of the Scriptural principles outlined above, in many lands Jehovah’s Witnesses make a personal decision not to vote in political elections, and their freedom to make that decision is supported by the law of the land."
Witnesses are perhaps best known for the efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people house to house,Jehovah\'s Witnesses: Proclaimers of God\'s Kingdom, chap. 25 pg. 570” –1993| “House-to-House Preaching —An Identifying Mark” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of PennsylvaniaThe Watchtower - May 15, 1981, p. 17. | “Showing Lifesaving Neighbor Love” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania but also in a variety of other ways. They use Watchtower publications to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with some publications being available in as many as 410 languages. Witnesses are encouraged to devote as much time as possible in preaching activities.
They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Bible principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.The Watchtower - January 15, 1987, p. 6. | “Social Ministry—How It Affects People” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of PennsylvaniaThe Watchtower - July 15, 1971, p. 426. | “How the True Church Helps” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania “The most important thing for you, for every individual—including the poor and afflicted—is to enter into a right relationship with God and Christ. To that end the Christian witnesses of Jehovah are sent into the world, not with material bread, which would be only a temporary help, but with spiritual food, the word of life. These words from God will open the way to peace with Him, and at the same time the way to eternal life in God’s new order, when there will be plenty for all.” (November 1, 1966) "Watchtower": 647. Members are encouraged to participate in the preaching work and if possible to give a voluntary donation to the Watchtower Society\'s "Worldwide Work" fund.The Watchtower | 5/15/02 p. 11 Phenomenal Increase Necessitates Quick Expansion “In each congregation, there are boxes clearly labeled “Contributions for the Worldwide Work—Matthew 24:14.””
Kingdom Hall meeting in Portugal.
Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding Kingdom Halls, but usually, assistance is provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.Awake! 6/8/89 p. 30 From Our Readers “By no means do Jehovah’s Witnesses ignore the plight of others when disasters occur. Previous articles have demonstrated how willing Jehovah’s Witnesses are to assist their neighbors during such times. See, for example, the article entitled “The Levee Has Broken!” (October 8, 1986) We thus endeavor to “work what is good toward all, but especially toward those related to us in the faith.” (Galatians 6:10)Awake! 6/06 p. 19 Heeding the Warnings Made a Difference “This group cares for the Louisiana area, which took the brunt of Hurricane Katrina. Of the 2,700 homes of Witnesses needing repair there, work on 1,119 had been completed by the middle of February, so a huge task was still facing that relief committee. Again, neighbors and families with dire need were also helped.” Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees."Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil". Watchtower. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Retrieved on 2005-12-04. “Since 1994, Jehovah\'s Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa” Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work of Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America. (June 2006) "Awake!": 14–19.
Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus\' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown, on the date frequently corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover, Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar (usually in March or April).“What Does the Bible Really Teach?” –2005, p. 206 | “The Lord’s Evening Meal—An Observance That Honors God” | . © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania Typically, in most congregations, no one partakes during this annual event, since the majority of the 144,000 have already died. According to witness publications, as of 2008, there remain about 9,000+ persons who do partake - an increase from the previous year - who anticipate being resurrected to heaven after their death. Almost all Witnesses today believe their future hope is to live after Armageddon, on a paradise earth which will be governed by Jesus and his heavenly government.
Jehovah\'s Witnesses are encouraged to have spiritual matters as the priority in their life. Thus, higher education (college and university) are not a primary focus. Whether or not such is to be undertaken is nevertheless an individual decision. It is encouraged that an individual carefully consider whether or not to go to college because of a perceived risk of difficulty in balancing spiritual responsibilities. However, it is a matter of conscience to be considered individually and always is secondary to spiritual responsibilities. Secondary education is pursued with the intent of caring for one\'s personal needs and not the pursuit of status or prestige. Members are directed to ask themselves questions, such as, "How might being immersed in an atmosphere of intense competition and selfish materialism affect you?"“Questions Young People Ask – Answers That Work” chap. 22 p. 179 What Career Should I Choose? | “... a survey of U.S. university administrators described today’s students as ‘career-oriented, concerned with material success, concerned with self.’ One group of students said: “Money. It seems like all we talk about is money.” How might being immersed in an atmosphere of intense competition and selfish materialism affect you?” A similar question cites a study stating that in some universities "Drugs and alcohol are used freely, and promiscuity is the rule" and asks "might living there thwart your efforts to remain morally clean?"“Questions Young People Ask – Answers That Work” chap. 22 p. 179 What Career Should I Choose? | “Universities may no longer have the riotous scenes of the 1960’s. But a decrease in university bedlam hardly means the campus environment is wholesome. Concluded one study of campus life: “Students still have almost unlimited freedom in personal and social matters.” Drugs and alcohol are used freely, and promiscuity is the rule—not the exception. If this is true of universities in your land, might living there thwart your efforts to remain morally clean?—1 Corinthians 6:18.” But if they must attend a university, they are encouraged to keep themself "spiritually strong". Young Witnesses are reminded that "some youths who have been obliged to attend university have even managed to be pioneers (full time Witness ministers) by choosing a schedule of courses that made that possible."“Questions Young People Ask – Answers That Work” chap. 22 p. 179 What Career Should I Choose? | “Keep yourself spiritually strong by meeting attendance, field service, and personal study. Some youths who have been obliged to attend university have even managed to pioneer by choosing a schedule of courses that made that possible.“Awake!” - March 8, 1998, p. 21. | “Does the Bible Discourage Education?” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania"Parents--What Future Do You Want For Your Children?" in the October 1 2005 Watchtower. Lecture by Governing Body member, Gerrit Losch at Monza, Italy in 2005, which can be viewed at [2].
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Jehovah\'s Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline administered by elders in the congregation. These include:Court Judicial, Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 1, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Inc., 1988 p. 519Jehovah’s Sheep Need Tender Care, The Watchtower, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, Inc., January 15, 1996, pp. 18-19Repentance Leading Back to God, September 1, 1981, The Watchtower, p. 23
Marking is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping (shunning). Marking is based on their understanding of 2 Thessalonians 3:6, and used only if the person repeatedly refuses counselWatchtower 4/15/85 p. 31 Questions From Readers | “First the elders try repeatedly to help the violator by admonishing him. If the problem persists, they may, without naming the person, give a warning talk to the congregation concerning the disorderly conduct involved. and the conduct of the individual is considered a "spiritual danger" to the members of the congregation. A talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual).The Watchtower - April 15, 1985, p. 31. | “Questions From Readers” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would be minimized. (April 15 1985) "Question From Readers". Watchtower: 31.
Reproof involves sins for which one could be disfellowshipped. But if “true repentance” is shown, the person is not disfellowshipped, but merely reproved.”Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life” chap. 14 p. 138 par. 22 Whose Authority Should You Recognize? | “If a Christian who has committed a grave sin accepts Scriptural discipline and reproof and gives evidence of genuine repentance, he will be helped. Of course, persistent and unrepentant violators of God’s law are disfellowshipped. —1 Corinthians 5:9-13. Reproof may be given before all who have knowledge of the transgression. (December 1 1976) "Giving Reproof "Before All Onlookers"". Watchtower.
Disfellowshipping is the most severe form of discipline. Congregation members avoid all social and/or spiritual association with disfellowshipped individuals. (April 15 1988) "Watchtower". Disfellowshipped members can attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.Practices of Jehovah\'s Witnesses. ReligionFacts. Each year, the elders make an attempt to remind disfellowshipped ones of the steps they can take to qualify for reinstatement.
Regarding child abuse, unless a confession is made, the religion will act only on cases where there have been two witnesses, based on the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15 - "No single witness should rise up against a man ... At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of three witnesses the matter should stand good". "However, the elders are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah\'s Witnesses ... if local privacy laws permit. They also comply with laws requiring even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to be reported to the authorities. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."[3]Jehovah\'s Witnesses and Child Protection, undated statement to media copyrighted 2003, accessed December 12, 2007 at http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/backgrounders/e_molestation.htm: “In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply.” In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation"Watchtower 1/1/97 p. 29 Let Us Abhor What Is Wicked | “For the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation. Moreover, he cannot be a pioneer or serve in any other special, full-time service.” Announcements to the congregation would follow organization policy regarding \'serious sins\'.Watchtower 11/15/06 p. 30 par. 20 Always Accept Jehovah’s Discipline | “20 If a sin is widely known or will undoubtedly become known, announcement to the congregation would likely be appropriate in order to protect its reputation. An announcement will also be made if the congregation needs to be informed.”
Jehovah\'s Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood
The official teaching of Jehovah\'s Witnesses regards blood as sacred and rejects allogeneic and pre-operative autologous transfusions of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.How Can Blood Save Your Life? How Can Blood Save Your Life?. Accessed 4 December 2005. This is based on an understanding of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from ... blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11,12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood ... No soul of you shall eat blood," and of Genesis 9:3, 4, which they understand to be the first instance of "the Bible’s clear prohibition against taking blood into the body."Awake! - December 8, 1998, p. 19. | “Doctors Take a New Look at Bloodless Surgery” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania Although accepted by a majority of Jehovah\'s Witnesses, evidence indicates a minority does not wholly endorse this doctrine.The Watchtower May 1, 1950 p. 143The Watchtower August 1, 1958 p. 478, "One of Jehovah’s witnesses who claims to be of the anointed remnant recently went to the hospital and took a blood transfusion, voluntarily. Should she be allowed to partake of the emblems of bread and wine at Memorial time? — R. J., United States. We, of course, regret with you that this sister who professes to be one of the anointed remnant took a blood transfusion voluntarily during her stay in the hospital...."Cynthia Gyamfi, MD, and Richard L. Berkowitz, MD, Obstet and Gynecol Vol. 104, No. 3, September 2004, “This review refutes the commonly held belief that all Jehovah’s Witnesses refuse to accept blood or any of its products. In this population of pregnant women, the majority were willing to accept some form of blood or blood products.”Letter to All Bodies of Elders in the United States, Watchtower December 1, 1993, This correspondence reports that up to 50% of Jehovah’s Witnesses had failed to maintain up-to-date Medical Directive cards and were unprotected from routine transfusions.
Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood are subject to organized communal shunning. (1991) Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock. Watchtower, 95. (January 6, 2001) "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah\'s Witnesses". BMJ: 37-39. Watchtower letter to All Hospital Liaison Committees dated June 16, 2000, “If a baptized member of the faith willfully and without regret accepts a blood transfusion, he indicates by his own actions that he no longer wishes to be one of Jehovah’s Witnesses. The individual is no longer viewed as a member of the Christian congregation because he no longer accepts and follows the Biblical prohibition to abstain from blood.Watchtower media release dated June 14, 2000Our Kingdom Ministry, Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, August, 2002 p. 3, “Cooperating with the Scriptural arrangement to disfellowship and shun unrepentant wrongdoers is beneficial.” However, it is a personal decision on how their "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."The Watchtower June 15, 2000 pp. 29-30Instructions for Filling In the Advance Decision Document, published by Watchtower in Britain, August 2005 p. 1, "addresses autologous transfusion procedures (those that involve the use of your own blood, which may temporarily leave your body...)" A Jehovah\'s Witness is aware that there is a risk of death yet believes that dying faithfully is better then living and breaking God\'s command to abstain from blood. Procedures which are permitted include where a "quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient" and intra-operative cell salvage. The Watchtower October 15, 2000 pp. 30-31 This is qualified by their understanding that "collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy," so their position is they do not "store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out."Occasionally, a doctor will urge a patient to deposit his own blood weeks before surgery (preoperative autologous blood donation, or PAD) so that if the need arises, he could transfuse the patient with his own stored blood. However, such collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Blood is not to be stored; it is to be poured out—returned to God, as it were. Granted, the Mosaic Law is not in force now. Nevertheless, Jehovah’s Witnesses respect the principles God included in it, and they are determined to ‘abstain from blood.’ Hence, we do not donate blood, nor do we store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out.’ That practice conflicts with God’s law. The Watchtower October 15, 2000 pp. 30-31 Of course, in current medical practice, whole blood transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used instead.Fractions Background. While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept any fractions made from these components.The Watchtower, June 15, 2000 p. 30. Sniesinski et al (April 2007). "Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah\'s Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa". Anesthesia & Analgesia. Durable Power of Attorney form, published by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, January 2001 p. 1, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one\'s own blood include: Cell Salvage, Hemodilution, Heart-Lung Machine, Dialysis, Epidural Blood Patch, Plasmapheresis, Labeling or Tagging of Blood and Platelet Gel (Autologous). See November 2006 Our Kingdom Ministry, pp. 5–6 However, if a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them but is permissible. Awake! August 2006 box on P. 11
Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to premature deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths."In former times thousands of youths died for putting God first. They are still doing it, only today the drama is played out in hospitals and courtrooms, with blood transfusions the issue." (May 22, 1994) "Youths Who Put God First". Awake!: 2.
Ethical concerns in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes. (December 2006) "Medical Emergencies in Children of Orthodox Jehovah\'s Witness Families". Pediatrics and Child Health: 655-658. (February 19, 2007) "The Sextuplets: Whose Babies Are They?". Macleans: 34-38. Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah\'s Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion. (October 1, 2000) "Medical confidentiality and the protection of Jehovah\'s Witnesses\' autonomous refusal of blood". The Journal of Medical Ethics. (October 1, 2000) "Refusal of potentially life-saving blood transfusions by Jehovah\'s Witnesses: should doctors explain that not all JWs think it\'s religiously required?". The Journal of Medical Ethics. Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience. (December 1999) "Jehovah\'s Witnesses\' refusal of blood: obedience to scripture and religious conscience". Journal of Medical Ethics.
A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.University of Pennsylvania article A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah\'s Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.[4] Article from Jehovah\'s Witnesses official websiteMSNBC article on Jehovah\'s Witnesses and bloodless surgery Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah\'s Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.Nicolas Jabbour. Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery, 15-22.
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| Controversies | |
| Beliefs | |
| Beliefs and practices | |
| God\'s name · Eschatology Blood · Disfellowshipping | |
| Literature | |
| The Watchtower · Awake! New World Translation | |
| Related people | |
| Formative influences | |
| C.T. Russell · William Miller N.H. Barbour · Jonas Wendell | |
| Watchtower Presidents | |
| J.F. Rutherford · N.H. Knorr F.W. Franz · M.G. Henschel D.A. Adams | |
| Notable Watch Tower Officials | |
| Hayden C. Covington · A. H. Macmillan | |
Jehovah\'s Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. Various splinter groups arose after Russell\'s death, particularly with the beginning of the presidency of Russell\'s successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society, in 1931 came to adopt the name Jehovah\'s Witnesses, under Rutherford\'s leadership; some of the splinter groups survive to this day, though few of these have upwards of 1000 adherents (see splinter groups article). Those who did not support Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups which have retained Russell\'s teachings. Jehovah\'s Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a formal name for their religion.
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)
In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group composed mostly of Second Adventists (a group that arose after the Millerite Great Disappointment) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."Looking back to 1871, we see that many of our company were what are known as Second Adventists."--Zion\'s Watch Tower, February 1881. Reprints, p. 187. "Second Adventists" is an older name for the Advent Christian Church.
An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked, in part, by Jonas Wendell. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour\'s eschatology. Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.Barbour, N.H. (1871). Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry. Retrieved on 20 February, 2006.Barbour, N.H. (1874). The Midnight Cry and Herald of the Morning. Retrieved on 20 February, 2006. See Section under "Our Faith." Soon after Barbour\'s second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874.N.H. Barbour (July 1875). "The Prophetic Periods". Herald of the Morning: 28-29. Russell recounts his meeting with Barbour and gives "a brief sketch of the development of present truth" in the April 25, 1894 Watch Tower pp. 92-119. See also Watchtower (July 15 1906). "Harvest Gatherings and Siftings". Watchtower: 3822. They differed from most Second Adventists, teaching that all mankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth. In 1877, Barbour and Russell jointly published the book The Three Worlds detailing their views.N.H. Barbour, C.T. Russell (1877). The Three Worlds and The Harvest of This World. Text Version A gathering of the saints to heaven was expected for 1878 and the year 1914 was to mark the end of Gentile control of the city of Jerusalem and the final end of the rule of human governments, marking a forty-year period from 1874.The Three Worlds, pp. 68, 89-93, 124, 125-126, 143, 189. Chas T. Russell (October 1876). "Gentile Times: When Do They End?". Bible Examiner. By 1877, a separation between the Barbour-Russell group and the Advent Christian denomination was apparent.See the July 18, 1877 Advent Christian Times, pp. 89-90.
In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour after Barbour discounted the worth of what is known as the substitutionary atonementThe dispute between Barbour and Russell began in August, 1878 and lasted several months. Russell, as co-editor of The Herald of the Morning defended his view against Barbour\'s in the September, 1878 issue. and he soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion\'s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ\'s Presence (now known as The Watchtower).Online copies of The Watch Tower from 1879–1916 can be viewed by issue at [5] or by article at [6] or in a PDF at [7]. These are taken from the 7 volume Watch Tower Reprints published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879–1919. After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour\'s eschatological views. (June 1879) "Notice". Herald of the Morning: 99. By 1880, Barbour had rejected the idea of an invisible presence in 1874, believing instead that Christ would return in the flesh: "And he [Jesus] will come back to the church, in like manner as they saw him go; and not in an invisible manner." (July 1880) "Our Mistake". Herald of the Morning: 2. He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.July, 1882 Zion\'s Watch Tower, Reprints, p. 369. But see "God is Love" in the first issue of Zion\'s Watch Tower (July, 1879). In 1881 he formed the legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (currently headquartered in New York City).Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was formed on February 16, 1881, with W. H. Conley as president and C. T. Russell as secretary and treasurer. (1993) Jehovah\'s Witnesses: Proclaimers of God\'s Kingdom. Watchtower, 576. In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures.Originally entitled Millennial Dawn. The titles of the six volumes are: 1) The Divine Plan of the Ages, 2)The Time is At Hand, 3)Thy Kingdom Come, 4)The Day of Vengeance (later retitled The Battle of Armageddon), 5)The At-one-ment Between God and Man, 6)The New Creation. Volumes available in scanned PDF format at: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Early editions declared that 1799 marked the beginning of the "time of the end"; Jesus’ second coming occurred invisibly in 1874 as marked by the lengths of the internal passages of the great pyramid of Egypt; the great pyramid at Gizeh is God\'s Stone Witness and Prophet; Pleiades is the place of the eternal throne of God; and that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.C.T. Russell (1902). The Time is At Hand. Watch Tower, 76-78. The predictions for 1914 were revised in later editions. Various statements assuring the accuracy and authority of their predictions were issued, such as "We see no reason for changing the figures — nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God’s dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."The Watchtower, July 15, 1894, p. 1677 In contrast, Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises ... We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."See article "Yet Seven Years More" in Zion\'s Watch Tower, January 1, 1908 (reprint), p. 4110. In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in the United Kingdom.
Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942)
Following Russell\'s death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell\'s Last Will and Testament. Jehovah\'s Witnesses—Proclaimers of God\'s Kingdom. Watchtower, 64–65. ;C.T. Russell\'s Last Will and Testament. from the December 1, 1916 Watch Tower. This editorial committee was requested to not write, or be connected with, any other publications. On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge" Rutherford) was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.New by-laws were passed at the time of Rutherford\'s election that strengthened the President\'s authority. M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed, p. 51. Rutherford, as chief legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society, had written the new by-laws. (See Harvest Siftings II, written by J.F. Rutherford.) Initially, the Board of Directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support. Rutherford published his account of the dispute in Harvest Siftings. and Harvest Siftings II. The four directors replied to Rutherford\'s first booklet in Light After Darkness. The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled, for one month, a proposal to return control of the Society to the board (see Rutherford\'s Harvest Siftings under subheading "Seeds Begin to Bring Forth"), but Rutherford prevented the board from meeting again. Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the headquarters staff in Brooklyn. The Finished Mystery. Watchtower. , published 1917, was called the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures. PDF version of The Finished Mystery Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.A.H. MacMillan. Faith on the March, 80. Retrieved on 2007-10-25. . The ousted directors disagreed: "...if the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society\'s three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford\'s own logic, did not hold office legally."—Apocalypse Delayed, M. James Penton, p. 52 The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,"Also, in the year 1918, when God destroys the churches wholesale and the church members by millions, it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of \'Christianity.\'"— (1917) The Finished Mystery. Watchtower, 485. (later editions read differently) 1920"And the mountains were not found. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. And the mountains were not found. Every kingdom of earth will pass away, be swallowed up in anarchy." (1917)
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